One of Adam Smith’s most original ideas in The Theory of Moral Sentiments (TMS) is the “impartial spectator”, but who (or what) is this perplexing and puzzling observer? Thus far, we have seen how the Scottish philosopher refers to this mystery man/enigmatic entity as an arbiter, examiner, and judge (see here), and we have also seen how he uses such jurisprudential words as appeal, judgment, and sentence to describe the workings of this imaginary magistrate (here). But is Smith’s impartial spectator a god, maybe even the all-powerful Christian God?

No, he is not. (Sorry, KSY!) Although Adam Smith uses the words “great judge” multiple times in TMS to refer both to the deity and to the impartial spectator, the Scottish moral philosopher always capitalizes the word Judge when referring to God. For textual reference, quoted below are all seven instances in TMS where Smith uses the phrase “great judge”/”great Judge”:

1. TMS, II.iii.2: “the great Judge of hearts” = “the Author of nature” = [God]

Actions, therefore, which either produce actual evil, or attempt to produce it, and thereby put us in the immediate fear of it, are by the Author of nature rendered the only proper and approved objects of human punishment and resentment. Sentiments designs, affections, though it is from these that according to cool reason human actions derive their whole merit or demerit, are placed by the great Judge of hearts beyond the limits of every human jurisdiction, and are reserved for the cognizance of his own unerring tribunal. (TMS, II.iii.2)

2. TMS, III.ii.32: “a much higher tribunal” and “the great judge and arbiter of [mankind’s] conduct” = “the supposed impartial and well-informed spectator” = “the man within the breast”

But though man has, in this manner, been rendered the immediate judge of mankind, he has been rendered so only in the first instance; and an appeal lies from his sentence to a much higher tribunal, to the tribunal of their own consciences, to that of the supposed impartial and well-informed spectator, to that of the man within the breast, the great judge and arbiter of their conduct.

3. TMS, III.iii.4: “the great judge and arbiter of our conduct” = “the inhabitant of the breast, the man within”

It is not the soft power of humanity, it is not that feeble spark of benevolence which Nature has lighted up in the human heart, that is thus capable of counteracting the strongest impulses of self-love. It is a stronger power, a more forcible motive, which exerts itself upon such occasions. It is reason, principle, conscience, the inhabitant of the breast, the man within, the great judge and arbiter of our conduct. It is he [the man within the breast] who, whenever we are about to act so as to affect the happiness of others, calls to us, with a voice capable of astonishing the most presumptuous of our passions, that we are but one of the multitude, in no respect better than any other in it; and that when we prefer ourselves so shamefully and so blindly to others, we become the proper objects of resentment, abhorrence, and execration.

4. TMS, III.iii.43: “the great Judge of the universe” = “that Divine Being” = [God]

A true party-man hates and despises candour; and, in reality, there is no vice which could so effectually disqualify him for the trade of a party-man as that single virtue. The real, revered, and impartial spectator, therefore, is, upon no occasion, at a greater distance than amidst the violence and rage of contending parties. To them [the contending parties of politics], it may be said, that such a spectator scarce exists any where in the universe. Even to the great Judge of the universe, they impute all their own prejudices, and often view that Divine Being as animated by all their own vindictive and implacable passions. Of all the corrupters of moral sentiments, therefore, faction and fanaticism have always been by far the greatest.

5. TMS, VI.ii.1.22: “the great judge and arbiter of our conduct” = the man within the breast = the supposed impartial spectator

In what cases friendship ought to yield to gratitude, or gratitude to friendship; in what cases the strongest of all natural affections ought to yield to a regard for the safety of those superiors upon whose safety often depends that of the whole society; and in what cases natural affection may, without impropriety, prevail over that regard; must be left altogether to the decision of the man within the breast, the supposed impartial spectator, the great judge and arbiter of our conduct. If we place ourselves completely in his situation, if we really view ourselves with his eyes, and as he views us, and listen with diligent and reverential attention to what he suggests to us, his voice will never deceive us. We shall stand in need of no casuistic rules to direct our conduct.

6. TMS, VI.iii.1: “the great judge and arbiter of conduct” = the supposed impartial spectator = the great inmate of the breast

Regard to the sentiments of other people, however, comes afterwards both to enforce and to direct the practice of all those virtues; and no man during, either the whole of his life, or that of any considerable part of it, ever trod steadily and uniformly in the paths of prudence, of justice, or of proper beneficence, whose conduct was not principally directed by a regard to the sentiments of the supposed impartial spectator, of the great inmate of the breast, the great judge and arbiter of conduct. If in the course of the day we have swerved in any respect from the rules which he prescribes to us; if we have either exceeded or relaxed in our frugality; if we have either exceeded or relaxed in our industry; if, through passion or inadvertency, we have hurt in any respect the interest or happiness of our neighbour; if we have neglected a plain and proper opportunity of promoting that interest and happiness; it is this inmate who, in the evening, calls us to an account for all those omissions and violations, and his reproaches often make us blush inwardly both for our folly and inattention to our own happiness, and for our still greater indifference and inattention, perhaps, to that of other people.

7. TMS, VI.iii.25: “the great demigod within the breast, the great judge and arbiter of conduct”

The wise and virtuous man directs his principal attention to the first standard; the idea of exact propriety and perfection. There exists in the mind of every man, an idea of this kind, gradually formed from his observations upon the character and conduct both of himself and of other people. It is the slow, gradual, and progressive work of the great demigod within the breast, the great judge and arbiter of conduct.

To recap, Smith conjoins the words great and judge multiple times in TMS to refer to no less than three different entities! Sometimes, Smith’s “great Judge” (with a capital “J”) refers to the “author of nature” or “Divine Being”, i.e. God. (See passages 1 and 4 above.) At other times, however, this “great judge” (lower case “j”) simply refers to “the inhabitant of the breast, the man within”, i.e. our inner voice or conscience. (See, for example, passage 3 above.) But most of the time, Smith uses the words “great judge” to refer not only to the man or “inmate” within the breast but also to “the supposed impartial spectator.” In this set of passages (see passages 2, 5, 6, and 7 above), Smith equates the “supposed impartial spectator” with the man within the breast.

In short, Smith’s “supposed impartial spectator” is not God. He is the man within the breast, and the role of this imaginary magistrate is to judge the morality of our actions. But is there a higher-level impartial spectator, separate from Smith’s “supposed impartial spectator” or man within the breast? My colleagues Daniel Klein, Nicholas Swanson, and Jeffrey Young (KSY) say there is (see here) based (mostly) on a single passage in TMS (TMS, VI.i.11). Stay tuned, for I will revisit that crucial passage in my next post …